After the fall of the Ming loyalist regime led by Koxinga, Taiwan came under the control of the Qing dynasty in 1683. The Qing Empire formally annexed Taiwan as part of Fujian Province, making it an official frontier territory of the Chinese empire (Shepherd, 1993). Qing rule was marked by both integration and marginalization: the empire sought to exploit Taiwan’s resources and secure its borders while managing the complex mix of Han settlers, Indigenous populations, and the remnants of Koxinga’s loyalists.

For the Qing, Taiwan was a peripheral region, distant from the imperial capitals of Beijing and Nanjing. The administration initially designated Taiwan as a “frontier” to be controlled rather than fully developed. Military garrisons were established, tax collection systems imposed, and migration from Fujian and Guangdong encouraged to populate the island (Shepherd, 1993).

The Qing categorized Indigenous populations into “raw” (未化) and “cooked” (已化) groups, reflecting the degree of assimilation into Han norms and the empire’s ability to exert authority over them. Raw groups were often confined to the mountains and monitored through military campaigns, while cooked groups were expected to adopt Chinese customs, taxation obligations, and agricultural practices (Andrade, 2008).

Qing policies accelerated Han migration, reshaping Taiwan’s demographic profile. By the 18th century, Han settlers formed the majority, predominantly speaking Hokkien and Hakka dialects. Agricultural techniques, Confucian social structures, and Chinese legal norms were widely introduced, reinforcing a Sinicized identity on the plains (Shepherd, 1993).

Education under Qing rule focused on Confucian classics, civil service preparation, and local governance. This emphasis on moral and bureaucratic education helped cultivate a literate and disciplined Han population, yet Indigenous and frontier communities remained marginalized, often excluded from formal schooling and civic participation.

Despite Qing authority, Taiwan remained a site of resistance. Han settler uprisings, Indigenous revolts, and piracy persisted throughout Qing rule. Notable rebellions, such as the Lin Shuangwen uprising in 1786–1788, reflected the tensions between imperial authority and local interests (Teng, 2004). These conflicts reinforced a distinct Taiwanese identity, separate from both mainland China and imperial mandates, rooted in local concerns, economic livelihoods, and ethnic tensions.

Qing governance, while expanding Sinicization, also highlighted the limits of imperial control. Taiwan’s identity as a frontier society emerged from this duality: integrated enough to benefit from trade and bureaucratic organization, yet autonomous enough to resist full assimilation.

By the late 19th century, Taiwan had become a productive agricultural region, exporting rice, sugar, and tea to the global market. However, Qing neglect in infrastructure, defense, and social services left the island vulnerable. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) exposed these weaknesses, resulting in Taiwan’s cession to Japan under the Treaty of Shimonoseki (Shepherd, 1993).

Qing rule, therefore, represents both the consolidation of Han identity on the island and the persistence of localized Taiwanese identities. It also set the stage for the next empire — Japanese colonial rule — by creating an economically productive yet socially and politically fragmented society.

Under the Qing dynasty, Taiwan transitioned from a contested frontier to an integral, if peripheral, part of the Chinese empire. The Qing balanced integration and marginalization, fostering a Sinicized Han population while leaving Indigenous communities largely on the margins. Resistance and localized governance practices created the foundation for a distinct Taiwanese identity. Qing policies shaped the island’s demographic, cultural, and political landscape, leaving a legacy that continues to inform Taiwanese identity and its responses to later empires.

References

Andrade, T. (2008). How Taiwan became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish, and Han colonization in the seventeenth century. Columbia University Press.

Shepherd, J. R. (1993). Statecraft and political economy on the Taiwan frontier, 1600–1800. Stanford University Press.

Teng, E. (2004). Taiwan’s imagined geography: Chinese colonial travel writing and pictures, 1683–1895. Harvard University Asia Center.